Financial Management

In addition to financial considerations, there are several non-financial factors that organizations should take into account when making a make or buy decision. These non-financial considerations play a significant role in determining the optimal choice and ensuring the long-term success of the decision. Here are some key non-financial factors to consider: 1. Core Competencies: Assessing…...

Marginal costing and standard costing are two different approaches used in cost accounting to analyze and control costs. Here’s a brief explanation of the differences between the two: 1. Definition and Focus: – Marginal Costing: Marginal costing focuses on analyzing the behavior of costs in relation to changes in production volume. It segregates costs into…...

When evaluating the make or buy decision, it’s crucial to consider not only financial factors but also non-financial considerations that can have a significant impact on the decision-making process. Some key non-financial considerations include: 1. Control and Flexibility: Making a product or performing a service in-house gives the organization greater control and flexibility over the…...

OD (Overdraft) and CC (Cash Credit) are two common types of borrowing facilities provided by banks, but they differ in their nature and usage: Nature: Overdraft (OD): An overdraft is a facility that allows an individual or business to withdraw funds from their bank account even if the account balance is zero or negative. It…...

CIBIL (Credit Information Bureau India Limited) and CRISIL (Credit Rating Information Services of India Limited) are both important entities in the financial industry, but they serve different purposes and have distinct roles: CIBIL is a credit information company that collects and maintains credit-related data of individuals and companies. It operates as a credit bureau and…...

DSCR stands for Debt Service Coverage Ratio. It is a financial metric used by lenders to assess a borrower’s ability to meet their debt obligations, specifically interest and principal payments. The DSCR measures the cash flow available to cover debt payments, providing an indication of the borrower’s capacity to service their debt. The calculation of…...

When analyzing the annual report of a company, several key areas should be considered to gain insights into the company’s financial performance, strategies, and overall health. Here is a structured approach to analyzing an annual report: 1. Financial Statements: Review the balance sheet, income statement, and cash flow statement to assess the company’s financial position,…...

The scenario you presented, where a company has had positive EBITDA for the past 10 years but recently went bankrupt, may seem contradictory at first. However, it is important to understand that EBITDA (Earnings Before Interest, Taxes, Depreciation, and Amortization) is just one measure of a company’s financial performance and does not capture the full…...

Free cash flows of a firm refer to the cash generated by its operations that is available for distribution to investors, debt repayment, or reinvestment in the business. It represents the cash flow that remains after deducting operating expenses, taxes, and capital expenditures necessary to maintain and expand the company’s operations. Here are some key…...

Valuing a company involves assessing its worth or intrinsic value, which can be determined using various methods. Here are some common approaches to company valuation: 1. Comparable Company Analysis: This method involves comparing the company to similar publicly traded companies or recent transactions in the same industry. Key financial ratios, such as price-to-earnings (P/E), price-to-sales…...

The income statement is not directly affected by changes in inventory because it follows the matching principle of accounting. The matching principle states that expenses should be recognized in the same period as the revenues they help generate. As a result, the income statement primarily focuses on the recognition of revenues and expenses incurred during…...

Working capital refers to the difference between a company’s current assets and its current liabilities. It represents the funds available to cover day-to-day operations and is a key indicator of a company’s liquidity and short-term financial health. Working capital is essential for meeting short-term obligations, managing inventory, funding operational expenses, and sustaining ongoing business activities…....

In general, a technology company would likely have a higher beta compared to a manufacturing company. Beta is a measure of a stock’s volatility or sensitivity to market movements. A beta greater than 1 indicates higher volatility, while a beta less than 1 suggests lower volatility compared to the overall market. Technology companies are often…...

Foreign Exchange Reserves are cash and other reserve assets such as gold held by a central bank or other monetary authority that are primarily available to balance payments of the country, influence the foreign exchange rate of its currency, and to maintain confidence in financial markets. Reserves are held in one or more reserve currencies,…...

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) rate is a key economic indicator that measures the overall size and growth of a country’s economy over a specific period. It represents the total value of all goods and services produced within a country’s borders during a given time, typically measured on an annual basis. The GDP rate provides valuable…...

The discount rate, often referred to as the required rate of return or cost of capital, is a crucial concept in finance used to determine the present value of future cash flows. It represents the rate of return an investor or company requires to justify investing in a particular project or asset, considering the inherent…...

Solvency ratios are financial metrics that provide insights into a company’s ability to meet its long-term financial obligations and remain financially stable over time. These ratios focus on the company’s debt levels in relation to its assets, equity, and earnings. Here are some key solvency ratios that help assess financial stability: Debt-to-Equity Ratio: This ratio…...

EBITDA removes the differences in profit arising on account of “newness” of assets or differences in Depreciation Method. 2 companies can be compared even if 1 follows SLM and the other WDV. If we used EBIT to compare an old airline company and a new airline company, the old one would appear more profitable (assuming…...

Financial Analyst Financial analysts tend to work with the overall picture. They review financial decisions based on current market trends, stated business objectives, and possible investment options. These professionals’ evaluations help determine whether a project or venture is worthy enough for investment. There are two main types of financial analysis—fundamental analysis and technical analysis. Financial…...

When the degree of operating leverage is higher than the degree of financial leverage, when the operations are very risky and there are fluctuating cash flows then this type of company should keep more equity. When the degree of financial leverage is higher than the degree of operating leverage, when the operations are less risky…...

The cost of equity is generally higher compared to other sources of funding due to several factors: Higher Risk: Equity represents ownership in a company, which means equity investors bear the highest level of risk. Unlike debt holders who have a fixed claim on the company’s assets and income, equity investors have residual claims and…...

Inflation rate refers to the percentage change in the general level of prices for goods and services over a specific period, typically a year. It measures the rate at which the purchasing power of a currency is eroded over time. Inflation is often expressed as an annual percentage increase in the Consumer Price Index (CPI)…...

The most common capital investment evaluation tools are the Payback Period (PP), Return on Investment (ROI), Net Present Value (NPR), and Internal Rate of Return (IRR). Each method can provide insight into investment options, but each also has limitations. If net present value is positive, the project should be accepted. If internal rate of return…...

Terminal value is an estimate of the value of a project or investment at the end of its projected life or a specific period in the future. It represents the cash flow or value that is expected to continue beyond the forecast period. Terminal value is commonly used in financial valuation models, such as discounted…...

We do not use a DCF if the company has unstable or unpredictable cash flows (tech or bio-tech start-up) or when debt and working capital serve a fundamentally different role. For example, banks and financial institutions do not re-invest debt and working capital is a huge part of their Balance Sheets – so you wouldn’t…...

Consistency Principle Incremental Principle Separation Principle Post Tax Principle Favorite… To get access, please buy CA Interview Question Bank...

The economic factors that influence corporate bond yields are interest rates, inflation, and economic growth. All these factors affect corporate bond yields and exert influence on each other. The pricing of corporate bond yields is a multivariable, dynamic process in which there are always competing pressures. For example, economic growth is bullish for corporations as…...

The cost of equity is typically higher than the cost of debt, primarily due to the difference in the inherent risks associated with each source of financing. Cost of Debt: When a company raises funds through debt, it involves borrowing money from creditors (lenders) and agreeing to pay interest and principal over a specified period…....

Negative IRR indicates that the sum total of the post-investment cash flows is less than the initial investment, i.e. the non-discounted cash flows add up to a value which is less than the investment. Yes, both in theory and practice negative IRR exists, and it means that an investment loses money at the rate of…...

Hedging is a risk management strategy used to minimize or offset potential losses or risks arising from price fluctuations or uncertain events in financial markets. It involves taking an opposing position or entering into a financial contract that is designed to mitigate the impact of adverse movements in the value of an asset, liability, or…...

The end goal of financial restructuring is to improve the financial health, stability, and sustainability of a company. It involves making strategic changes to the company’s financial structure, operations, and obligations in order to achieve specific objectives. The ultimate goals of financial restructuring can vary depending on the circumstances and challenges faced by the company,…...

▪ A company cannot meet its debt obligations / interest payments. ▪ Creditors can accelerate debt payments and force the company into bankruptcy. ▪ An acquisition has gone poorly, or a company has just written down the value of its assets steeply and needs extra capital to stay afloat (see investment banking industry). ▪ There…...

Restructuring bankers advised distressed companies – businesses going bankrupt, in the midst of bankruptcy, or getting out of bankruptcy – and help them change their capital structure to get out of bankruptcy, avoid it in the first place, or assist with a sale of the company depending on the scenario. Favorite… To get access, please...

Swap ratio refers to the ratio at which shares of one company are exchanged for shares of another company in a merger or acquisition. It determines the relative valuation or exchange rate of the shares involved in the transaction. When two companies decide to merge or when one company acquires another, they may agree to…...

Dividend should be declared based on future needs of the organisation. If the company has positive NPV projects available do not declare dividend, else do. Alternatives to distribution of dividend: Buy back of shares: This comes out with advantages such as a. When the growth potential is limited they use unused cash to buy back…...

The answer is, if you are not paying any dividend then there is opportunity cost for my investor and that opportunity cost is reflected in CAPM, so even if dividend is not being paid there is always a cost. It is measured using CAPM model which does not depend on whether the company is paying…...

To evaluate whether to start the factory or not, a comprehensive financial analysis should be conducted. Here are some key steps to consider: Cost-Benefit Analysis: Assess the potential benefits and costs associated with the factory. Identify the expected revenue streams, market demand for the products, and potential profitability. Consider factors such as production costs, operational…...

The main difference between EBITDA and cash flow from operation is working capital changes and taxes. In EBITDA, it is before tax and in cash flow from operations, it is after tax. The second difference is that EBITDA is on an accrual basis and cash flow from operations is on cash basis. Favorite… To get...

There can be various reasons why one loss-making company may choose to take debt while the other may not. Some possible reasons could be: Risk tolerance: The company that has taken debt may have a higher risk tolerance and may be willing to take on more debt to finance its operations or expansion plans, whereas…...

Liquidity Ratios: 1.Current Ratio: Current Assets / Current Liabilities 2.Quick Ratio: (Current Assets – Inventory) / Current Liabilities 3.Cash Ratio: Cash and Cash Equivalents / Current Liabilities Coverage Ratios: 4. Debt-to-Equity Ratio: Total Debt / Total Equity 5.Debt-to-Asset Ratio: Total Debt / Total Assets 6.Interest Coverage Ratio: Earnings Before Interest and Taxes (EBIT) / Interest…...

Because Market value is attributable to equity holders and EBITDA is attributable to both equity and debt holders. When we calculate any multiple, we should take numerator and denominator for either equity holders only or both equity and debt holders like below ratios: Equity multiples – P/E, P/BV, P/TBV Firm wide multiples: EV/ EBITDA, EV…...

Enterprise Value, or EV for short, is a measure of a company’s total value, often used as a more comprehensive alternative to equity market capitalization. The market capitalization of a company is simply its share price multiplied by the number of shares a company has outstanding. Enterprise value is calculated as the market capitalization plus…...

Shares and bonds are both financial instruments used to raise capital, but they differ in several ways: 1.Ownership: Shares represent ownership in a company, while bonds represent a loan to a company. 2.Return: Shareholders are entitled to a share of the company’s profits in the form of dividends and capital gains, while bondholders receive a…...

Financial risk management is the process of identifying, assessing, and managing various types of financial risks that a company may face in its operations. Financial risks can arise from a variety of sources such as market fluctuations, credit risks, liquidity risks, interest rate risks, currency risks, and commodity price risks. Effective financial risk management involves…...

A swap is an agreement between two parties to exchange sequences of cash flows for a set period. Usually, at the time the contract is initiated, at least one of these series of cash flows is determined by a random or uncertain variable, such as an interest rate, foreign exchange rate, equity price or commodity…...

Future and forward contracts are both types of derivatives that allow parties to enter into an agreement to buy or sell an asset at a predetermined price on a future date. However, there are some key differences between the two: Future Contracts: A future contract is a standardized agreement traded on an exchange, where the…...

The main difference between call and put options lies in the rights and obligations they grant to the holder. Here are the key distinctions: Call Options: A call option gives the holder the right, but not the obligation, to buy an underlying asset at a specified price (strike price) within a predetermined period. The holder…...

Option trading refers to a financial derivative strategy that involves the buying or selling of options contracts. Options are financial instruments that give the holder the right, but not the obligation, to buy or sell an underlying asset at a predetermined price (strike price) within a specified period. Option trading allows investors to speculate on…...

An increase in accounts receivable could be driven by various factors within a company’s operations, financial management, or external environment. Here are some possible drivers of an increase in accounts receivable: Sales Growth: If the company is experiencing higher sales or increased business activity, it may lead to a larger volume of credit sales and…...

Modeling working capital for a company involves projecting and managing the company’s short-term assets and liabilities, such as accounts receivable, accounts payable, and inventory. The goal is to ensure that the company has sufficient liquidity to cover its operational needs. Here’s a step-by-step approach to modeling working capital: Understand Components: Familiarize yourself with the key…...

Revenue Forecasting for Telecom Industry: Key Drivers/Metrics: Subscriber Growth: The number of new subscribers and the churn rate (subscriber attrition) directly impact revenue. Average Revenue Per User (ARPU): Calculated by dividing total revenue by the number of subscribers, ARPU reflects the average revenue generated from each customer. Data Usage: As data consumption increases, revenue from…...

Financial risk management is the process of identifying, assessing, and managing various types of financial risks that a company may face in its operations. Financial risks can arise from a variety of sources such as market fluctuations, credit risks, liquidity risks, interest rate risks, currency risks, and commodity price risks. Effective financial risk management involves…...

NIFTY and SENSEX are stock market indices in India. NIFTY represents the National Stock Exchange of India’s 50 largest companies by market capitalization, while SENSEX represents the Bombay Stock Exchange’s 30 largest and most actively traded companies. They are used as barometers to measure the overall performance of the Indian stock market and provide investors…...

The differences between EBIT and EBITDA: 1.EBIT stands for Earnings Before Interest and Taxes, while EBITDA stands for Earnings Before Interest, Taxes, Depreciation, and Amortization. 2.EBIT is calculated by subtracting the company’s operating expenses from its revenue, while EBITDA is calculated by adding back depreciation and amortization expenses to EBIT. 3.EBIT represents the amount of…...

The inventory turnover ratio is a financial metric that shows how efficiently a company is managing its inventory. It measures the number of times a company sells and replaces its inventory during a given period, typically one year. The ratio is calculated by dividing the cost of goods sold by the average inventory for the…...

The first step of taking a loan is to assess the need for borrowing and determine the amount needed. This involves evaluating the purpose of the loan and identifying the specific financial requirements to achieve the intended goal. Once the amount needed has been determined, the borrower should assess their ability to repay the loan,…...

Currency swap is a financial contract between two parties to exchange principal and interest payments denominated in two different currencies. In a currency swap, each party borrows and lends in a different currency. The purpose of a currency swap is to manage currency risk and reduce the cost of borrowing in a foreign currency. Interest…...

The Cost of Equity is always higher than Cost of Debt. Note that we have used the word ALWAYS not USUALLY. This is because for any given company, equity will always be riskier than debt, and hence costlier. Risk is the main reason why equity is more expensive – the equity investor faces an uncertainty…...

Profitability ratio: Profitability ratios measure a company’s ability to generate profits from its operations. 1.Gross Profit Margin = (Revenue – Cost of Goods Sold) / Revenue x 100% 2.Net Profit Margin = Net Profit / Revenue x 100% 3.Return on Equity = Net Income / Shareholders’ Equity x 100% Valuation ratio: Valuation ratios assess a…...

Dividend models are used to estimate the value of a company’s stock based on its expected dividend payments. Two commonly used dividend models are the Dividend Discount Model (DDM) and the Gordon Growth Model (GGM). Dividend Discount Model (DDM): The DDM values a stock by discounting its expected future dividend payments to their present value…....